Public transportation in New York City first became organized with franchises being granted to those companies operating ferries which crossed the East and Hudson Rivers, and then conjunctively with those horse car routes connecting to those ferry operations. Tokens were issued upon payment for transfer to connecting lines.

   Tickets then became used by the early street traction, elevated and subway companies; and some will be surprised to learn that tickets remained to be used concurrent with tokens, as well as transfers.

   As time marched on and technology progressed; we watched horse drawn modes of conveyance on the surface routes give way to electrically powered equipment and then to internal combustion powered vehicles. For the elevated lines, steam operation yielded to electric power. The subways started off as powered by electricity and have remained so.

   For those unknowing; elevated and subway operations are considered rapid transit, whereas horse drawn stage, horse drawn omnibus; electric trolley & street car; and internal combustion bus are considered surface transit.

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   Some of the early transportation companies used cardboard "chits" (tickets) instead of metallic tokens as either initial tickets or as transfers to connecting lines. These types of tickets were predominately used in the early era of operations (1830's to 1930's). Some were used in conjunction with the early transfer token issues. They would be collected and reused many times, only being replaced when worn out & illegible, becoming lost, or not returned by the passenger.

   Following some very in-depth research into very early issues of the New York Times (then known as the New York Daily Times); I was able to ascertain some fares of the stage lines which may be read here - "Where it all began"

   They were collected by the stage driver or conductor upon boarding by the passenger. At the end of the day, they were counted, entered into a ledger; then used the next day all over again.

   Printed tickets are an economical price point for manufacture. Job printers abounded in New York City at the time and re-orders were available easily.

   Eventually with printing developments, tickets were able to be sold in strips, bound into booklets and sold at various fare rates. However, the survivability of small card chits is small in comparison to brass or pewter tokens, so there is a general misconception of popularity in the use of either.

   There is something else that bears noting, when discussing tickets and transportation methods of this era; and that being the coinage in circulation during the time span when the first stages and horse drawn trolleys were operating. These coins would not be recognized by 99% of the modern population, with many of the denominations are no longer in circulation and the cent piece was larger than a quarter! These coin issues are historically important in their own right, and are shown here actual size:

• Half cent coins. Plain and simple; good old fashioned inflation reduced the need for this coin. Discontinued as result of 1857 US Coin Act.
• One cent pieces or "pennies", were huge: 29 millimeters - just a smidge larger than todays dollar coins and a bit smaller than the current half dollar. Cents were resized to the current 19mm in 1857 as a result of the 1857 US Coin act as well.
• There were also two cent pieces in circulation, with a big shield on front and wreath on back. Last year of production of two cent pieces was 1873.
• The three cent piece was also in circulation, with a six pointed star and Roman numeral III in the letter C on the back. Last year of production of three cent pieces was also 1873.
• Before the nickel entered circulation, you had the half dime, which was worth five cents. Last year of production of half dimes was also 1873.
• The nickel was introduced in 1866 to replace the half dime, but both circulated concurrently. The nickel had a shield of front and a numeral 5, or later a Roman V (for 5); on the back of them. 
• Dimes and half dimes had Lady Liberty in a seated position. 
• Not a single coin here had a deceased US President or any other notable American person on them. Most had some allegorical (representative) form of "Lady Liberty" on them.

   Each and every coin shown was in circulation in the mid to late 1800's; some more popular than others. But they were all legal tender; and these coins were all used at one point or or another to pay for a ticket or directly for a fare on stage lines and the first trolley lines. In most cases; a stage driver, conductor or change booth clerk (as well as merchants) were ready to accept them for payment and give them in return as change.

   And to think people of today dislike getting pennies in change - can you imagine back then, getting half pennies and big honkin' pennies and two cent pieces in return for a dime? But back then, no one threw half cents away like people do with pennies today.

   And now, back to our regularly scheduled transportation topics.

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   "Back in the day" passengers purchased their tickets from the change booth (what we have come to currently call the token booth) prior to boarding the train. And it was NOT always a nickel.

It is not well remembered now, but in the early days of operation from 1879 to November 1, 1886, the Manhattan Railway charged the rather exorbitant sum of 10 cents per ticket.    As we read as described in detail contained in the Proceeding of the American Society of Civil Engineers, August 1917 article at right, is the following information.    It clearly states that the lower fare of 5 cents was charged on "commission trains", which operated in the morning and evening rush hour periods. This is the reverse of how present day commuter train fare schedules are set (as well as other transportation methods), with higher prices charged during peak travel times (the morning and evening rush hour periods, Monday through Friday). In effect, this fare schedule could be construed as "reverse congestion pricing", with higher fares being charged during off peak travel times to make up for the lower patronage.    We also see as a result of this article, the method of ticket collection was changed from conductors taking up tickets aboard the train, which was abolished on January 20, 1879. The reason for this was, at times of large crowds - especially during rush hours; the conductor may not have gotten to taking your ticket before you disembarked at your station; allowing you to ride for free and using your ticket on another date.    So, the collection of tickets now required passengers to deposit their tickets into ticket boxes upon exiting the train at the exit gates. With this method, it also caused congestion when trains discharged the passengers in one short time span. So, on June 21, 1880; the method of ticket collection would change yet again.    Passengers now had to deposit their tickets into chopper boxes prior to boarding the trains; and it is this method of ticket collection that would gain widespread use for other rapid transit companies in the Cities of New York, the Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens as well.    This method worked the best, considering people arriving to purchase their tickets and hand them to the gateman were for the most part spread out over time. Granted, you can still get a crush of people, but the groups were smaller than on discharge of a train arriving in a station.

..  . Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, August 1917

   Only on November 1, 1886; would the elevated fare would be reduced to 5 cents "around the clock" and to match other lines, and it is on this date in 1886 - not 1904 with the opening of the IRT subway - that rapid transit operations in New York City first saw the full time "nickel fare".

   After purchasing their ticket(s) a patron would proceed to the gate which divided the "open area" or public spaces from the "fare controlled area" which was the stairs that led to the subway or elevated platforms. Here, at an opening in this gate, a collector or "gateman" stood next to a glass and wood box on a pedestal, called a "chopper box".  

   The passenger would hand the ticket to the gateman, who would place the ticket into the top of the "ticket chopper", and actuated the handle that in turn chopped the ticket, preventing reuse. This action finally granted you access to the "controlled area", also known as the platforms of the subway and elevateds, or main terminals of the surface cars.

Columbus Circle Station; showing change / ticket booth; and gate separating "unpaid" area (and stairs to the street) and "paid" side (subway platform) areas. This image was taken upon completion of construction and the chopper box not yet installed.		Gateman with chopper box. Note the second chopper box covered by canvas and not in use.

   The glass inspection box facilitated the inspection of the front or backs of the tickets to check their validity as they were dropped into. Without fail, someone, somewhere; was guaranteed to try and gyp the system and get a free ride - whether it be counterfeit tickets or slugs in the turnstiles.

Gateman with chopper box. image courtesy of New York Transit Museum	Ticket Chopper Box at IRT Wall Street Station image courtesy of ephemeralnewyork	Deposit slot, glass viewing box and "funnel" image courtesy of New York Transit Museum	Chopping mechanism (slightly damaged) and removed from wood cabinet. image courtesy of New York Transit Museum

   The glass box on top had a glass plate v-shaped funnel at the bottom (not shown in the patent drawings) which directed the tickets into the chopper box. Here a set of interlaced metal teeth resembling combs are mounted. Connecting to these teeth combs, there was a shaft that connected through the side of the case to the outside. Much like the purpose of a modern paper shredder; only the chopper boxes were manually operated. The tickets were chopped to prevent reuse and the shredded tickets contained in a hopper in the bottom portion of the chopper box pedestal. 

 
  The ticket choppers on display at the New York City Transit Museum were patented in 1894 by George Matteson: Ticket Mutilator -  Patent US517053; and were manufactured by the Ingersoll-Sergeant Company.

   Unfortunately, the chopper box on display in the New York Transit Museum, is mis-identified as being manufactured by Ingersoll-Rand. The turnstiles were in fact manufactured prior to Rand merging with Ingersoll, and when the company was known as Ingersoll-Sergeant Drill Co.. Simon Ingersoll founded Ingersoll Rock Drill Company in 1871 in New York; and in 1888, it combined with Sergeant Drill to form Ingersoll-Sergeant Drill Company.

   In parallel and competitive development; brothers Addison and Jasper Rand, Jr. established Rand Drill Company in 1871; with its main manufacturing plant in Tarrytown, New York. Rand drills cleared New York's treacherous Hell Gate channel and were used in the construction of water aqueducts for New York City and Washington, D.C., and railroad tunnels located in Haverstraw and West Point, New York, and in Weehawken, New Jersey.

   It was not until 1905, that Ingersoll-Sergeant Drill Company acquired and merged with the Rand Drill Company to form Ingersoll Rand.

   Research has also revealed that other models of ticket choppers predate this model; with ticket chopper designs dating back to the 1870's. As such, other types and manufacturers of ticket choppers would have been used by other transportation companies, before the model that are currently on display in the New York Transit Museum.
   
   The diagram shown here is from "Proceedings of the American Electric Railway Engineering Association", October 1923; from filings submitted to them by the Interborough Rapid Transit and Brooklyn Rapid Transit (to become Brooklyn Manhattan Transit or BMT) and shows the placement of the ticket chopper at a basic low traffic station. Those stations at junctions, major street locations (i.e. Times Square) and end terminals would be equipped with multiple gates and chopper boxes so as not to hinder the flow of passengers waiting to enter.

   Also, at this point in time the Independent Subway System did not exist yet so it is not shown.

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   As those Facebook posts made by the New York Transit Museum would have you believe, chopper boxes were all removed in 1920 when the coin operated turnstiles first appeared. But this is erroneous.

   First, considering the vastness of the subway system, it would be quite some time until the turnstiles could be installed in all the stations - subway AND elevated. And, back then there were a lot more elevated stations, than there are presently.

   Second: it must be kept in mind, that there were two subway / elevated systems in that era: the IRT and BMT. While we reference the topic as "the subway" or "the elevated", there were multiple operators of the different routes. Therefore, while the IRT may have introduced the coin operated turnstile; did the BMT jump on the bandwagon at the same time? It is not expected so - again: this was the pre-first unification era.

   It would not be until 1928, that at least one turnstile was finally deployed in all the stations of the subway and elevated lines throughout New York City, and of which eliminated the last of the gatemen. Some of these gatemen moved into other employment positions or simply retired. But in actuality, the chopper boxes themselves were not physically removed. Most were simply covered with a canvas cover, and were kept for stand-by use.

   This is evidenced by images seen in several archives, and even images that have been posted by the Transit Museum themselves:

IRT Ninth Avenue Elevated 72nd Street and Columbus Avenue Station - February 6, 1936 Berenice Abbott photo "Changing New York" series	IRT White Plains Line Gun Hill Road Station, ca. 1973 (just prior to the cessation of service on the Third Avenue Elevated - April 29, 1973.) Reddit unknown provenance

   Furthermore, we even have photographic proof that the chopper boxes saw actual use in later days:

Recently discovered in the New York Times issue dated July 2, 1948, and in the multi-page coverage regarding the fare raise to 10 cents the day before; is a photo of a Transit Employee with a chopper box placed next to a portable turnstile (Perey Model 48 "HD") accepting the new small format combination (surface to rapid) tickets at the Fordham Road Station in the Bronx! The caption reads, "The old ticket chopper" came back into service at the Fordham Road Station of the Independent Line to collect the transfers."    It is also interesting to note that the model turnstile shown next to the chopper box, is a model used in surface transit applications: streetcars and buses. It appears here it is being used as a counting mechanism.    Returning to the image; the intersecting surface lines for the Fordham Station would have been the Surface Transportation Corp. Bx12 and Bx19 routes, and the ticket being deposited would have been almost identical to the one shown at below left. Friday July 2, would have been gray ticket like shown, but with a number "2".    Anecdotal recollection of a member in the Facebook group for the Transit Museum recalls a chopper box being used in the 1960's to collect the inter-divisional continuing ride transfers from the Fulton IND Line in the BMT Franklin Avenue Shuttle station.    Chopper boxes were even used as late as June 30, 1980 albeit as a simple receptacle to help accept old tokens and a dime for the June 28, 1980 fare hike (and new token release), as seen in the New York Times article at right.

   And, as seen in the August 1979 image below; a chopper box next to the mid-platform booth on the  /  northbound platform of the Howard Beach / JFK Airport station. It appears the actuating arm projects into the token booth for actuation by the clerk.


   One has to now wonder, if a good portion of these chopper boxes remain stored in station storerooms or some MTA / NYCTA facility for "emergency use". They are very rarely encountered (if at all) for sale; and this rarity (if one reflects upon it) leads one to think they have not been surplussed and scrapped, despite their nostalgic memories. The rationing for thus:

   Fareboxes from buses are very prolific on the collectors market; as are roll sign mechanisms, station signage, seats, fans, and motorman's controllers from old subway cars. Even large heavy items such as track signals, as well as other large bulky station furniture and memorabilia from the Transit Authority. So why haven't we seen chopper boxes?

    At the least, I would like to think there are a few hundred of them, sitting in a dusty warehouse in a storage room under one of the East River bridge approaches; or perhaps individually in station storage closets waiting to come to light!☺

   In conclusion; tickets were light, easily handled and remained an economical means of fare control.

   Even after 1953, when fares rose above 10 cents and prevented the use of a single coin for turnstile operation, and tokens were now purchased from the clerk to gain access to the transit system; the fare ticket never really died - it would go on to be used for special fares and limited access uses as for senior citizens, the physically challenged, pupils, or other special cases or events.

   These later era tickets are categorized on the following page:

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While most consider the NYCTA "dime sized" Y token of 1953 to be the "first" tokens for transit, they were not.    The "Y" tokens may have been the first tokens issued for use by the NYCTA, but: they were not the first token to be used for transportation in New York City and; not the first token used in New York City subways.        Many companies prior to the existence of the NYCTA issued tokens to be used as both transfer checks, and for initial fare payment.    It is a matter of semantics.    The Board of Transportation (the predecessor to the Transit Authority) issued tokens for use by passengers to account for the collection of transfers on a streetcar or bus; prior to the 1953 tokens of the NYCTA; and tokens were used dating back to the early 1830's, were used in this fashion by the individual traction / transit companies. It is these tokens that are all too often overlooked. And these early issues were manually issued and collected by stage drivers or conductors.

   The New York and Harlem Railroad was the first streetcar company in New York City to have utilized tokens, and they issued one token design with several counter-stamps in 1831. No documentation has been uncovered yet to determine the meaning of the counter-stamp varieties (distance traveled? fare discount? route?)

   In the earliest of use, tokens could be either a metal of soft to medium hardness that can easily be struck, such as: pewter, copper, brass or German silver; or a hardened rubber compound also known as "Vulcanite" which could be manufactured in different colors.

   In contrast to the printing of tickets which was relatively easier to produce; to issue a metal token; a specialty manufacturer is needed to create a design by engraving onto metal dies, and punch blanks and then strike them with the dies. This was a huge up-front cost which many 19th century firms were not willing to bear. Especially so, when a transportation company would change names, merge or split from other lines, thereby changing the name on the token. In some cases former partners were scratched off tokens as we will see on Page 2 of this website.

   However, once a company invested in the manufacture of a token, fare increases could be handled by plating an old issue rather than minting a new one. The potential for reuse is tremendous. Furthermore, obsolete tokens, if not to be reused could be sold for scrap metal value, recouping some of the financial outlay.

   These early transportation tokens are also often seen pierced with a random hole. It is misconceived that someone punched a hole in the token to wear on a necklace as a charm or novelty.

   In reality, these tokens were punched or drilled by the horse car / omnibus / trolley companies, so a conductor could carry many tokens conveniently and efficiently on a metal ring made of a springy metal to distribute or collect from passengers as needed, as shown in the drawing at right.

   If the conductor was not actually carrying the ring of tokens in his jacket pocket or on a suspender belt; they could also be hung on a peg near the door to the stage, horse car or trolley.

   Later tokens were issued in exchange for transfers where turnstiles were installed upon the newest street cars and first internal combustion bus era.

Page 2 - Early Tokens - 1827 - 1940
Page 2 - First Unification: Board of Transportation / NYCTS - City Wide Issues - 1940 - 1953

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   Considering the vastness of the transit system, it would take some time until turnstiles could be installed in all the stations - both subway AND elevated; and there were a lot more elevated stations then, than there are now. It would not be until 1928 however, that turnstiles were finally deployed in all the stations of the subway and elevated lines throughout New York City, and of which eliminated the last of the regularly assigned gatemen.


   Subsequent improvements and modifications to the design of the turnstile would take place over the next decade, but the basic premise was this:

   A slot on the top of the turnstile would directly accept a single coin or a token. Reliable operation of a mechanical turnstile relied on four different (or a combination thereof) "discriminatory" factors. For the acceptance of proper coins and / or tokens for payment of fare, these were:

• size (diameter) of the coin / token, 
• thickness of the coin / token
  
• magnetic properties (or lack of) of the coin / token,
  and if so configured, 
• weight of the coin / token.

   At the time of being deposited, the coin or token is placed into a sized slot. Objects too large (whether in diameter or thickness) would not fit into the slot (i.e.: a quarter into a nickel, penny or dime slot; penny or nickel into a dime slot); whereas coins / tokens that were too small (i.e.: a dime or penny instead of a nickel) fell straight through to the reject / coin return slot.

   In applications where non-magnetic tokens are being accepted, a magnet attracted magnetic objects and directed the object to the reject slot, whereas non-magnetic coins / tokens fell straight through into the acceptance channel. This was not an issue with coin usage, as all US coins are non-magnetic. In those circumstances where steel tokens were used as fare media, the magnet attracted the token into the acceptance channel, letting non-magnetic tokens, coins or slugs fall straight through to the reject slot.

   After meeting the above two criteria, the coin or token now rested on upon a balanced lever calibrated to the precise weight of that particular coin or token. If the coin or token was too heavy, it depressed the lever and was directed through to the reject channel. Too light, and the lever would not depress, also redirecting the bad token / coin / slug to the reject channel.

   Now for the reason why tokens were metal: once the proper coin or token was in the acceptance position on the lever, this in turn completed an electrical circuit (55, 57, 58 in the patent drawing below left) which in turn energized a solenoid which then released the pawl mechanism holding the turnstile paddles thereby allowing them to be moved, as well as releasing the balancing lever, allowing the coin to drop into the coin receptacle box.

   Any foreign coin, a coin of different value, a slug or any other object not of the accepted size (diameter or thickness), magnetic property or weight would be rejected, fall through to the return slot, and the turnstile would stay locked. Because the locking ratchet pawl only locked the turnstile one way, passengers exiting could simply push through from the fare controlled side to the public side, while those traveling from the public side to the fare controlled side would find the turnstile locked.

   Furthermore, some models of turnstile that were mounted on the side of token booths, were also were equipped with a foot lever projecting into the booth, so a clerk could manually release the turnstile for members of the police or fire departments, transit employees, or other pass holders such as students. Research has shown, that these particular type of turnstiles are known as a "passimeter", while the stand alone coin / token operated types were noted as a turnstile. In modern day operations, no difference is specified between types and all are called turnstiles.

The complete Patent Filing above can be viewed here: Turnstile Patent 1921 US1578660.pdf

Electric Railway Journal - November 26, 1921

   With the introduction of turnstiles, the fare control areas changed. Not to mention, each of the rapid transit companies at that time (IRT and BRT) had their own philosophies on fare control area design. Of course, the actual physical attributes of the station location dictated some of the layout characteristics, but for the most part, the fare control area layout was standardized to a degree.

   All diagrams shown here are from "Proceedings of the American Electric Railway Engineering Association", October 1923; from diagrams submitted to them by the Interborough Rapid Transit and Brooklyn Rapid Transit (to become Brooklyn Manhattan Transit or BMT). Also, at this point in time the Independent Subway System did not exist yet, so it is not shown. In the diagrams below, the turnstiles are called "passimeters".

   This first diagram reflects the arrangement for fare control areas in IRT stations utilizing side platforms. This arrangement would be used for local service only stations.


   In comparison to the IRT arrangement, here is the BRT layout for a similar side platform stations for local only service as well.


   This next diagram reflects the arrangement for mezzanine fare control areas. While the diagram shown represents an elevated line local service arrangement, the arrangement could be modified and used at elevated stations with local and express service as well as subway stations offering both local and express service, with the platforms and staircases leading to island platforms between the local and express tracks, instead of the platforms to the outside of the local tracks as shown

   Note that one end of the mezzanine contains the high entrance / exit turnstiles (HEET) to allow off hours automatic entrance:


   This next diagram is unattributed to a particular user, but would be a variant for side platform station:

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   Returning to the discussion of the turnstiles, one thorn remained in the side of their usage however: the IRT used electrically operated turnstiles. The BMT, and later the IND used mechanically operated turnstiles. This factor would come to haunt the NYCTA when it decided to place the token into use in 1953.

Last nickel: Ms. Carmen Gherdol - June 30, 1948 - 11:59 pm Assistant Supervisor Bartholomew Barry holds the canvas coin bag that will cover the coin drop. IRT Times Square Station image courtesy of the New York Times Digital Archives	First dime: Ms. Esther Pollack - July 1, 1948 - 12:00 am IRT Times Square Station image courtesy of the New York Times Digital Archives	First 15 cent token: Ms. Judy Reed - July 25, 1953 IRT Times Square Station image courtesy of the New York Times Digital Archives

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   In consideration of the fare raise, the Board of Transportation added fourteen new "free" transfer locations, which are highlighted on the following map by yellow triangles:

The 15 Cent Fare: Why a token and not coins?

   When it comes to mass transit revenue collection, especially on the scale of the New York City system; a coin or token rejection or jam at a turnstile would mean that that turnstile being occupied or out of service until it was operable again. Rectifying the issue could take anywhere from minutes (for a token clerk to come out from the booth and clear the mechanism, if there were no customers to be served); to hours or even a day or more, (when a technician from the revenue department would come to repair or if need be, or exchange the jammed or faulty mechanism with an operable unit.)
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   Many people have inquired, why couldn't US coinage (nickels, dimes, quarters, and such) be used as the standard medium for payment and eliminate the token? While this sounds like a plausible enough suggestion, let us look at that inquiry a bit more in-depth.

   Naturally, the process for fare payment when it was a nickel or a dime was simple enough for a single coin. But, when fare hikes were approved to keep in line with rising costs of maintaining service, patrons would in no way tolerate a 150% jump in fare from 10 cents to 25 cents just so the transit system could keep a single coin fare. As it was, the fare increase in 1948 from 5 cents to 10 cents was a 100% increase and still constituted single coin use. And we all know how that hike was met, by public and politicians alike - it is a extremely well covered topic by newspapers and transit enthusiast publications!

   As the fare could be expected to rise over the decades, so would have the need for turnstiles to accept more and more coins of different denominations and combinations to be deposited to activate a turnstile. So fare increase increments were kept to 5 cents as long as feasible. Obviously, if the fare was 15, 35, or 75, the mechanism would require a nickel slot. Anything fare below a dollar, a dime and a quarter slot. If a single slot was the choice, a sorting mechanism inside the turnstile would be required.

   Eventually as we have also come to see, those minimal fare raises in nickel increments became insufficient to keep up with and cover the increased costs of operations. So the increment amounts of the fare hike were increased to 10 and 15 cents; to today, where a 25 cent raise in fare is just "normal". There was even a 50 cent hike in the transit fare back in 2013.

   The availability of the half dollar coins (Walking Liberty: 1916 - 1947; Franklin: 1948 - 1963; and Kennedy: 1963 to present) had minimal effect of fare payment operations. These coins were considered by the public as too bulky and heavy to keep in one's pockets. Despite this, the New York City Transit Authority did in fact install both manually operated (knob turn) token dispensers that accepted a half dollar coin, as well as install specially equipped turnstiles that accepted a half dollar coin for admittance to the Aqueduct Racetrack Special Train.

   Eisenhower dollar coins (introduced in 1971), they were also not popular coins as a media of exchange or payment; for the same reason as half dollars: they were bulky and heavy. Even the Susan B. Anthony dollar, released in 1979, which was designed to eliminate the bulk of the Eisenhower dollar coin yet retain the dollar valuation; was also poorly received by US citizens for general circulation, not so much as due to weight (as it was smaller than the Eisenhower dollar and smaller even than the Kennedy half dollar), but because its size and color was easily confused with the quarter; hence its derogatory name the "Carter Quarter". (Presidential dollar coins introduced in 2007 and the Sacagawea dollar coins released in 2009 do not factor into this, as tokens were eliminated in 2003.)

   This table below shows the various combinations of both the most amount of coins at left through the least amount of coins (at right) that could be required to activate the turnstile for that given fare amount; had tokens not been the chosen fare payment medium. Bold text indicated single coin operations. Also, please note that "odd amount" bus fares of the 1953 through 1956 (7 cents and 13 cents) and where pennies were needed to pay the fare or make change are not shown as they did not incur turnstile operations.

date	fare amount	maximum coinage					minimum coinage
1904	5¢	1 nickel
1948	10¢	2 nickels	1 dime
Had tokens not been introduced, the following coins would have been required:
1953	15¢1	3 nickels	or 1 dime and 1 nickel
1959	50¢2	n/a	n/a	n/a	1 half dollar2
1966	20¢1	4 nickels	or 2 dimes
	25¢	5 nickels	or 2 dimes and 1 nickel	or 1 quarter	Please note: the NYCTA never collected a 25¢ cent fare - it went from 20¢ to 30¢.
1970	30¢1	6 nickels	or 3 dimes	or 1 quarter and 1 nickel
1972	35¢1	7 nickels	or 3 dimes and 1 nickel	or 1 quarter and 1 dime
1975	50¢	10 nickels	or 5 dimes	or 2 quarters	or 1 half dollar3
1980	60¢	12 nickels	or 6 dimes	or 2 quarters and 1 dime	or 1 half dollar and 1 dime	or 1 half dollar and 2 nickels
1981	75¢	15 nickels	or 7 dimes and 1 nickel	or 3 quarters	or 1 half dollar and 1 quarter	or 1 half dollar and 2 dimes and 1 nickel	or 1 half dollar and 3 nickels
1984	90¢	18 nickels	or 9 dimes	or 3 quarters and 1 dime and 1 nickel	or 1 half dollar and 4 dimes	or 1 half dollar and 8 nickels
1986	$1.00	20 nickels	or 10 dimes	or 4 quarters	or 2 half dollars	or 1 half dollar and 2 quarters	or 1 dollar coin
1990	$1.15	23 nickels	or 11 dimes and 1 nickel	or 4 quarters, 1 dime and 1 nickel	or 2 half dollars, 1 dime and 1 nickel	or 1 dollar coin and 3 nickels	or 1 dollar coin, 1 dime and 1 nickel
1992	$1.25	25 nickels	or 12 dimes and 1 nickel	or 5 quarters	or 2 half dollar coins and 1 quarter	or 1 dollar coin and 5 nickels	or 1 dollar coin and 1 quarter,
1995	$1.50	30 nickels	or 15 dimes	or 6 quarters	or 3 half dollars	or 1 dollar coin and 5 dimes or 10 nickels	or 1 dollar coin and 2 quarters
1 = Upon its opening in 1956, the IND Rockaway Line south of Howard Beach was a double fare zone. Therefore, double the fare amount and coins shown. This double fare was not abolished until 1975. 2 = In 1959, specially equipped turnstiles accepted half dollars only for the Aqueduct Racetrack Special Train. Patrons of the Aqueduct Special either brought their own half dollars or obtained them from a clerk at the two stations where the       Aqueduct Special departed from: 42nd Street & Port Authority Bus Terminal or Hoyt / Schermerhorn Streets 3 = As far as is known, the NYCTA did not accept half dollars in bus fare boxes. Only token dispensers and token booths accepted them for payment (with reluctance).

   And bear this in mind - some passengers lived in areas under-served by rapid transit lines that required a bus ride in addition to their the subway / elevated trip. This meant their paying a double fare and having to carry twice the amount of coinage. So some poor souls would have required to carry four times the amount of coins (four trips).

   Visualize if you will, a subway patron attempting to place 30 nickels or 15 dimes into a turnstile while trying to catch their train pulling in?

• "Did I put in 9 dimes or 10?" 
• "Oops - I dropped my change!!" 
• "I put too many quarters in; Token Clerk, can you give me a refund? What do you mean no?!?!?"

   If these scenarios are not bad enough, picture this scenario but now during rush hour; with passengers attempting to place the correct quantity of coins into their respective differently sized slots on a turnstile with accuracy and quickly, while more and more people are lining up behind them, to use the turnstiles themselves, clamoring "Hey buddy! Move it will ya? - I gotta catch that train!" (This is New York bub, nobody is patient!)

   If any of you remember the old cigarette vending machines or cafeteria food vending machines where a customer stood there for what seemed like 20 minutes (while you waited your turn behind them) pumping coin after coin into the slot to make their purchase (ah, the days of the nickel or dime Horn & Hardart Automat), you will understand. In these cases, no one was really in too much of a rush. We all know coin operated token dispensers and vending machines for various products (soft drinks, cigarettes, postage stamps, et al) could take two or more coins and dispensed the item with the turn of a knob or the pull of a lever. So why could this not be applied to turnstiles?

   In the hustle and bustle of mass transit, with hundreds to thousands of people filtering through a single station at rush hour; each and every turnstile needed to be reliable, at the ready, and any potential for mechanical trouble kept to the barest of minimums.


   So in 1953, when the New York City Transit Authority found itself able to raise the fare to 15 cents (that the City of New York governed Board of Transportation had been unable to do), this 15 cent fare now required a coin combination of either three nickels or a dime and nickel.

   This led to two issues.

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   It is well published in many sources authoritative and contemporary, that turnstile mechanisms of the 1950's could not yet be manufactured to distinguish multiple coin sizes in such a small compact space and do so reliably and quickly; on the order of no more than 2-3 seconds between actuations.

   A multiple coin system, whether by electronic or physical (weight) methods, the mechanism needs time to verify the proper coins are in the proper position prior to release of the mechanism. Certain variables had to be accounted for, and the more variables introduced, equated to the increased chances of malfunction. A slightly bent coin, a heavily worn coin, a coin with chewing gum or something else sticky. Most of use pick up coins we find in the street: run over, scratched, gouged, damaged.

   Since in most cases, the fares required most subway patrons to go to the token booth and get change beforehand for say a dime, quarter, a half dollar or a dollar bill. When the fare was raised to 15 cents, it became beneficial to trade multiple coins for single object - the token.

   With the pre-purchased token, the transit clerk ensured the customer was getting tokens within specifications. A damaged or heavily worn token was removed from circulation. A passenger paying with a coin that was bent or damaged was accepted, because it need not actuate a mechanism. Hereafter, it was the banking system that removed the coin and forwarded it to the Federal Reserve Bank for retirement.

   But this technological limitation was only one part of the equation. It was not just about the mechanisms.

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The second factor to be considered, and yet which is hardly (if at all) discussed in regards to transit payment systems, is the speed of payment.    Here, were are not discussing the time it takes to go to the clerk and get nickels, dimes or tokens for the turnstiles, but the time it takes to deposit the coin or token into, and proceed through the turnstile.    In a usage application where speed is not of the essence, such as vending; obviously speed is not crucial.         But when in regards to high speed - high volume usage such as those of rapid transit transportation, especially in large stations or terminals; and / or at peak times, any delay in paying at the turnstiles hindered the flow of pedestrian traffic.

It should be noted, that in reference to the New York City Transit System; that the periods of time that are considered weekday "rush hours" have grown steadily over the last 145 years of rapid transit ridership: direction am start am finish total am hours direction pm start pm finish total pm hours total hours reference 1880 - 1904 to lower Manhattan 5:20 am 7:20 am 2 to upper Manhattan 5 pm 7 pm 2 4 MERR commission train tickets 1904 - 1940 towards Manhattan 6 am 8 pm 2 away from Manhattan 5 pm 6 pm 1 3 1941 - 1945 Due to gasoline rationing, as well as round the clock war time production, exceptionally heavy and longer rush hour periods were observed. 1946 - 1960 "        "  "            " 7 am 9 am 2 "        "  "            " 4 pm 6 pm 2 4 Vickrey 1960 - 1980 "        "  "            " 6 am 9 am 3 "        "  "            " 4 pm 6 pm 2 5 1980 - 2000 "        "  "            " 6 am 9 am 3 "        "  "            " 4 pm 7 pm 3 6 2000 - present "        "  "            " 6:30 am 9:30 am 3 "        "  "            " 3:30 pm 8 pm 4.5 7.5 MTA-NYCT        Not only has the amount of the workforce commuting to a more centralized area in Manhattan resulted in increasing transit users, but there has been a trending shortening of the work day 10 am to 4 pm, which has altered the periods of rush hours.     Thus, during these periods of "rush hours", any delay in depositing the coin or token by a single passenger at the turnstile had an consequential effect on following passengers.

   From these documents, we can extrapolate that during rush hour, a single turnstile can see one actuation every two seconds (or 30 people per minute / 1800 people per hour.) As most large stations and terminals have at least 3 to 4 turnstiles or even more, this gets us to the figure of 5400 to 7200 persons per hour (turnstile actuations), per station. Also as stated, the turnstile actuation rate has even been recorded as high as 50 passengers through a single turnstile per minute, or 1.2 seconds per actuation; and a remarkable testament to the reliability of the mechanisms, and the simplicity in payment which permit this traffic.

   By contrast, the WMATA (Washington DC Metropolitan Area Transit Authority) utilized turnstiles that accepted multiple coins, due to a zone / distance based fare system. These turnstiles, while they saw nowhere near the same level of traffic as the New York City system due to both a smaller population and smaller transit system,encountered a significantly slower rate of payment as well as increased actuation failure rate.

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The principal of K.I.S.S. and we're not talking about the rock band!

   In payment of a fare, inserting a single object into a single slot, was the epitome of the acronym: K.I.S.S. "Keep It Simple Stupid." 

The K.I.S.S. principal, suggests that most systems and designs work best when they are kept simple, rather than made overly complicated. This means a focus on clarity and ease of understanding over clever, sophisticated solutions or multiple choice decision making.

   It had been discovered through multiple generalized studies regarding time, motion and efficiency; beginning with Frank B. Gilbreth in 1912; and more specifically in regards to fare payment, that when it came to users (payors, passengers, etc) of mass transit, having to deposit a coin or token to enter through a turnstile, the use of multiple coins significantly increased the time required to go through said turnstile. In other words multiple coins "slowed down the works."  

   In a multiple coin slot system, the user in having to place the correct coinage in the correct slot requires a thought process: "place the dime in the small slot, the nickel in the big slot." 

   With the single coin or token, it became more of a second nature - a pre-programmed mental conditioning: insert nickel/dime/token, push. Even for non-commuters, i.e. the tourist; it was simple.

Studies showed multiple coins slowed down the process of passengers paying and transiting through the turnstile.    Ironically this very problem and the research behind this issue appears to even been forgotten (or taken a back seat to convenience) and would be encountered once again in 1978.    This was when the New York City Transit Authority attempted to implement turnstiles that accepted coins and / or tokens for convenience with the Duncan Industries Model TC "Token - Coin"; which accepted two quarters or a token for the 50 cent fare.    The issue encountered with these turnstiles was determined to be that many payors kept placing the wrong object in the wrong slot; re: placing the token in the quarter slot.

   And so as early as 1953, a multiple coin slot turnstile would have opened the door to patrons placing the dime in the nickel slot. Even if the turnstile mechanism was equipped with a automatic rejection slot, it would incur a delay: the second or two or three for the the wrong coin to be returned, the payor having to locate and retrieve that coin, and then reinsert it in the proper slot. This problem would cost several seconds of time. With hundreds of people funneling into the fare payment area, and queuing up to use the turnstile, ANY delay in payment would incur longer lines.

   Furthermore, persons handling more than one coin, especially doing so in a hurry (hence rush hour), thereby increased the chances of that person fumbling and dropping one or both of the coins on the floor, requiring them to stoop down and retrieve said coin(s) - IF they did not roll far or beyond the turnstile. If this occurred, then the payor needed to dig out replacement coinage from pocket or purse.

   For comparison, think back to old payphones where there was a opening for a nickel, dime and quarter. If you were calling a local telephone number, a nickel or dime (and later a quarter) made your connection. One coin  - ding - dial tone. But when you had to make a long distance call, and required varying amounts of change; you couldn't hold but more than a few coins at once in your hand. And no matter how many coins you could "palm" (hold in the palm of your hand), it took a few seconds to manipulate the next coin to your finger tips to deposit that coin into the slot. Most people put their coins on small metal tray in front of the phone and deposited the individual coins one at a time. This was not an option in the fast moving subway turnstile.

   In a rapid transit (subway or elevated) setting ("rapid transit") however, a single turnstile at peak travel time (the rush hours) could see one person depositing a coin or token every two seconds; which equates to 30 per minute; especially at major stations and terminals. Watching the following archival WPIX news flim footage of people going through the turnstiles in a New York City subway station. At the 1 minute 22 second mark; one will witness a smooth, uninterrupted procession of one person to the next. 

   Matter of fact, you can even see "a fumble" where a passenger missed the token slot but quickly recovered the token. Using a stop watch, it only takes 1.8 to 2 seconds from the time the token is deposited by the leading person and for that person to walk through, to the second person depositing their token and repeating the process, and this was not rush hour.

   Therefore, the introduction of multiple mechanisms and / or multiple coin slots in a turnstile; increased the likelihood of a misfed coin or token, which in turn resulted in rejection and failure to release the turnstile. Multiply this by the number of turnstiles at a busy station, and it would equate to a recipe for unwanted delay.

   In a turnstile admittance system with slow moving pedestrian traffic such as those used for admission to libraries, museums, cafeterias, et al, this lack of speed was not much of a factor. But when in relation to New York City rapid transit (the subway and elevated system), reliable operation of the turnstiles equated to speed of the payment and admission process. 

This speed of payment was conducive to mass transit system where hundreds of thousands to millions of people moved through the system daily like in New York City.

   As such, the single coin or coin-like object, whether it be a single nickel, dime, quarter; or a token; equated to speed.  Multiple coins or choices slowed down the works. And in the New York City subway, this would not do.    

   Hence the reason why the NYCTA introduced the single token as the preferred fare payment method. It was realized, the single token was the quickest, most reliable method for fast, efficient payment of fares in a high traffic, quick paced, mass transit situation. Transit patrons would need to go to the token booth and slide multiple coins or bills through to the clerk who would exchange them for a token (or multiples of tokens for later use) and the turnstiles became token operated instead of coin operated.

   Here is another of my famous but not entirely useless analogies: Joe Blow walks up to a hot dog stand on a street corner. His choice is simple: "Let me have a dog, with mustard and sauerkraut." Boom. Done. Hand the vendor your money, get your change. Walk away eating your dirty water dog.

   But walk into any of the big fast food chains and Joe Blow is inundated with choices. Do you want a burger, a chicken or fish sandwich? What do you want on that? French fries, onion rings or a baked potato? Drink: will that be small, medium, or large? A fountain soda or a specialty drink? Would you care to donate your change to a charity? Obviously, you get the point: too many choices and questions to customized the experience slows down the works.

   Ergo, in the case of the paying the fare for the subway; the lack of choice(s) meant the elimination of unnecessary delays in regards to both the thought process and physics. One token in one slot.

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Speed was not as crucial on surface transportation

   Payment speed was not as much of a factor on surface transit methods, i.e: streetcars / trolleys and / or buses. It must also be remembered; New York City Transit Authority tokens were NOT even accepted on buses or streetcars until May 18, 1963 - almost 10 years AFTER tokens were introduced for the subway. With streetcars & buses, it was generally accepted that the prevailing fare would be paid by combinations of coins or a token in later days, with most people conditioned to have the change ready as the bus approached. 

   The reasoning for this was, stemmed from either the trolley conductor (or in later operations the bus operator); would be present and made change (until 1969) and could remediate fare payment problems; and whereas some people required a transfer or directions for a connecting bus; the payment process was inherently slower.

   Another factor inherent to surface operations; was the 2 or 3 cents most companies charged for a transfer to another line. So here, we now have pennies added to the equation of coins needed on a streetcar or bus, either furnished by the passenger at time of purchase of the transfer, or received by the passenger in change from the conductor / operator.

   But also, even during rush hour / peak travel times; at best a single bus of the 1950's era only saw a capacity of approximately 40 to 60 people at a single time, and the boarding process was slow enough a passenger could deposit the mix of coins into a fare box built with a sorting mechanism, which took five to seven seconds per passenger: one person at a time, steps up onto the bus, change at the ready to deposit into the fare box and the driver visually verifying the drop of coins before pressing the accepting lever.

Speed, in Advance

   Another positive attribute to token use, is such that token operation lends itself very well to prepayment. A pack of ten tokens is significantly less cumbersome than say a roll of 40 or 50 coins of equal value to the tokens, and can be sold in advance.

   Pre-payment also has an added benefit for the transit agency (i.e. the NYCTA) is holding ones money in advance, instead of that person holding their money. Say a transit passenger purchased one token at a time; the agency only sees minimal investment and still has to pay the clerk wages to dispense a single token. 

   But if a passenger purchases ten tokens in advance, and the transit agency held onto the monies from the balance of nine tokens not used at moment. 

   And, say in the case of a tourist or short term visitor to New York City, and of whom purchases a ten pack (or an unlimited MetroCard); and departs before using all ten tokens (or the full value of the MetroCard) - the transit agency sees a windfall. They get to keep that money.  Those tokens or fare card are only good for that particular transit agency and no where else (except in cases when used as a slug); whereas US coinage could be used all over the country, and any business or bank. There was no incentive to "purchase" US coins ahead of time, and even if there were; you could get rolls at any bank and most large businesses for no charge. You held the full value until used.

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   An added benefit of tokens was a security issue: a change in the size slot on the turnstiles could not take place to deter prevent slug use in regard to US coin usages; which was standardized and widespread. Whereas in regard to tokens, the single token size could be changed to discourage and prevent the of using slugs. If an increasing amount of slugs or counterfeit tokens was realized; a new smaller or larger, or thicker token could be released superceding the old type.

   This could not be done with US coinage because of their nationwide or worldwide remittance factor. 

   Hence the decision by the New York City Transit Authority to implement the token as a solitary device for fare payment and general admission for fares of that required more than a single coin.

   As tabulated by the Rail Transit Fare Collection Policy and Technology Assessment, December 1982 DOT Urban Mass Transit Administration (Govind K. Deshpande, John J. Cucchissi, Ronald C. Heft (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Page 26); the ratio of failures in the Perey Turnstiles in the New York City subway system averaged 1 failure for every 45,000 actuations. This was an impressive figure, and as noted in the pulbication, as other and smaller municipal transit operations with multiple payment options suffered significantly higher failure rates at the turnstiles

   This is not to say, the NYCTA did not attempt to try coin operated turnstiles on at least two different occasions, or try other innovative ideas, even in later years. But these dual coin and token operated turnstiles failed to gain acceptance for the exact reasons listed above and as stated in the articles below right.

Rapid transit = rapid fare payment. So yes, in this hyper-fast paced world of fare collection on a mass transit system; the single token was the sane choice. Simple. Secure. Durable. Versatile. Reliable. Convenient. And cost effective for the issuing agencies.    Accepting multiple denomination of coins at the turnstiles meant more coins to process which meant more complicated mechanisms. If the turnstile had room for a sorting method, that meant three holding tubs. Nickels dimes quarters and tokens. Not enough room, meant all the coins in one tub, to be sorted by the clerk which equates to time consuming sorting at end of shift. Using one token kept the mechanism simple and its reliability high and the coin sorting took place intermittently and at time of purchase, instead of all at once at end of shift..    Furthermore, with subsequent fare hikes, the size or magnetic property of the token could be changed to prevent the hoarding of, and prevent the use of lower value tokens. Furthermore, it was a security measure as well: changing the size or properties of a token prevented older generations of slugs from being used via a new size token.    Even with the advent electronic fare payment systems with the Metrocard, glitches were encountered. When the MetroCard was first introduced in 1997, the premise was the same - a single swipe of a plastic card was supposed to allow activation of the turnstile mechanism.    However, it was soon discovered that a bent or creased plastic card, or a card that had been near a strong magnetic field (i.e.: laid on or a near a computer, or a speaker) had corrupted the embedded magnetic strip. Either of these conditions caused the cards not to read properly, if at all; and failed to release the turnstile and allow the payor through.    This required the user to swipe more than once, with each swipe taking a few precious seconds; with waiting passengers lining up behind them. These glitches "choked" the turnstiles, and slowing down pedestrian traffic through the turnstile.

   In comparison, the "tap" ONMY card is inherently faster than the "swipe" MetroCard.



.  In time this coin / token issue became superfluous, with the advent of electronic fare payment.

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   Before progressing further - it should be noted that different models of turnstiles, both newer and older models; could be found operating concurrently throughout the system. Note the turnstile coin drop in the 1948 and 1953 New York Times articles above: the same towered style coin drop is seen in both photos.

   It is now known that the different divisions of subway operation: IRT, BMT and IND each ordered their own model of turnstile. Even after the three divisions were conglomerated under the Board of Transportation in 1940 (the First Unification) and subsequently reorganized as the the New York City Transit Authority (Second Unification) in 1953, these various models of turnstiles remained in service until at such time of station remodeling and where a single system unified model of turnstile could be installed.

Manually operated booth-side Passimeter
These types of turnstiles were manually activated by the change clerk inside the booth. They were not automatic and there was no coin operated mechanism to release them.    The passimeter was mounted halfway through the side wall of the change booth, with a gate and turnstile arm projecting outside the wall of the change booth, and with the side with the foot lever and counter projected into the booth. Usually a shelf covered the arm inside the booth so the clerk was protected from walking into it and had more work area.    When a passenger who was entitled to travel for free, the change clerk would depress the foot lever which in turn released the arms, allowing the person to now pass through to the revenue side of the station. This happened more than people realize: it could be another transit employee, a policeman, a student, a vending machine owner filling up the Chicklets / Beeman's dispenser, or perhaps an advertising man changing the posters from Burma Shave to Barbasol.    Coin operated turnstiles were mounted to the outside of the passimeter lane.    In the earliest days of fare revenue collection, the terminology in the trade journals was specific: these were passimeters. Automatic coin operated versions were known as turnstiles. As time progressed, the passimeters were lumped into the turnstile category; and as passimeter gave way to the "electric lock gate", so as the passimeters faded from use; terminology was no longer an issue.
left unit: IRT; right unit: BRT / BMT

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designed by IRT; manufactured by General Electric: the "Featherweight Pressure Gate" - 1922 fare media: nickel 1921 - 1948 dime 1948 - 1953
The first electro-mechanical turnstile for the New York City subways and elevateds was not deployed until June 1921, and after being filed for a patent that same year, by Mssrs. Frank S. Hedley of Yonkers and James S. Doyle of Mount Vernon, NY.    If these names happen to sound vaguely familiar, perhaps that is because Frank S. Hedley was the President and General Manager, and James S. Doyle was Superintendent for the Mechanical Department, of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company.    They were revolutionary for their time and even had a name: "Featherweight Pressure Gate"    Other turnstiles mechanism were developed prior to this model, and required some serious pushing to get it to cycle. But this model was design specifically for high traffic rapid transit use, and it easy of turning made it well suited to the crush of thousands of passengers per hour.    After the patent was granted and the demonstrator model successfully tried out in service, General Electric Company was contracted to manufacture them.    It took until 1928 to install at least one of these turnstiles in each and every station on the IRT.    There are images in the NYTM archives showing this model in service in the the 1950's! uncovered hub type better image requested
GE "Featherweight Pressure Gate" turnstile - entrance covered hub type there was a covered platform connecting the coin deposit and the turnstile mechanism, that is not included in the Transit Museum display.	GE "Featherweight Pressure Gate" turnstile - side view covered hub type
builders plate for GE "Featherweight Pressure Gate" turnstile
A little internet research located the following two entries which reveal that the Interborough Rapid Transit, and its subsidiary Manhattan Railway; were still in the process of purchasing turnstiles in January 1923! So, in short these documents confirm, and refute the New York Transit Museum's erroneous statements that the ticket choppers were replaced in 1921, as IRT / Manhattan Rwys were still purchasing turnstiles to replace the choppers.    These documents also enlighten us to the cost of the turnstile: $258.00 per unit
both: Proceedings of the Transit Commission, State of New York, Volume 3 January 1, to December 31, 1923

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Manufactured by Perey, model name "Coinpassor", #55. This model was strictly mechanical, and would accept nickels, dimes and when introduced in 1953, tokens.    This type of turnstile; was first introduced in 1920. It would be the system wide standard, until either a station was renovated; or when the tokens eliminated in 2003.    The only online reference I can find regarding this model, is the 1970 "Rapid Transit Fare Structure and Collection Methods" published by the Institute for Rapid Transit (U.S.).    In this reference it's referred to as the "BMT Perey Coinpassor": 1970 "Rapid Transit Fare Structure and Collection Methods" published by the Institute for Rapid Transit (U.S.)    This now leads me to believe the IRT, the BMT and the IND all used different turnstiles. This would make sense as each was its own organization prior to unification in 1940, and only after would turnstile use be universal.    Another interesting facet about the above entry, is that 20 were left hand rotation. One has to wonder what locations these were required for.    Research is needed to ascertain if this model was in fact used on IND and IRT lines as well. Also it is understood this model is not on display at the Transit Museum.    The "Coinpassor" 55 is a cousin to the "Superstyle" 55 seen below.

Please note the image shown is from a Perey catalog, and does not show a NYCTA installation.

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Perey Model "HD" 48 and "Superstyle" 55 - circa 1930's fare media: nickel 1921 - 1948 transfer tokens
This model of turnstile was not used for rapid transit (subway / elevated) fare collection, but it was used by the surface transportation vehicles beginning around 1930; namely the newer model streetcars (Presidential Conference Committee Cars) and even some internal combustion powered bus models of that era as well. Perey Model 48 "HD" on Brooklyn & Queens Transit PCC Car #1001    These models of turnstiles was utilized with both nickels and the "transfer tokens" issued by the surface operators in the 1930's and 1940's: Brooklyn Bus Corporation, Brooklyn & Queens Transit, Board of Transportation - Transit System - Brooklyn Manhattan Transit Division, etc.	Perey Model 55 "Superstyle"
In this area of operation, the surface transfer system had a lot of variations. There were transfers that cost 2 cents, and some were free and some companies charged 3 cents for the transfer. Normally, with a fare box equipped vehicle; a passenger handed their paper transfer to the operator / driver and the passenger proceeded to the rear of the streetcar / bus to find a seat.    The installation of this turnstile hindered that operation. As the turnstile was mounted in the aisle a few feet behind the driver and the passenger now had to pass through it to reach the seating portion of the vehicle - it was accessible only by the passenger. The passenger now needed some form of fare media to activate the turnstile to be able to pass through. Since the transfer had already been prepaid; depositing additional funds was not the answer as that would incur a double payment upon the passenger. The solution laid with the use of transfer tokens to overcome that turnstile obstacle.    When a passenger desired a transfer to another line, it was requested at time of boarding of the first streetcar / bus. The two cent surcharge was paid directly to the operator on the first streetcar or bus, or if it was free; presented the passenger with the applicable paper transfer. When that passenger boarded the second streetcar or bus, they surrendered the paper transfer to the operator; and in turn the operator gave the passenger a transfer token to be deposited into the turnstile, permitting the passenger to proceed through to the back of the streetcar / bus. In no other terms, it was an added labor procedure that accomplished the same end result.    In the case of free transfers, a token was issued just as well to pass through the turnstile; however, it appears very likely that the two different color tokens were used to denote the different fare structure: one for free transfers and the other for 2 cent transfers.    Perhaps at some point, if the companies were steadfastly adamant about retaining the use of the turnstiles and not fareboxes; an electric release for the turnstile operated via push button by the operator would have sufficed, eliminating the need for the transfer tokens.    Despite the initial outlay of producing the token issues, and the labor incurred in handling them; it was the fact that the turnstile took up too much space - its placement in the aisle between the first set of seats; was the ultimate factor against its continued use. Double seats now had to be replaced with single seats, and the seating capacity was reduced by at least four passengers. Or, during rush hour; thirty standing passengers packed in like sardines (just kidding!) - more like maybe ten standees. In either case, it reduced the carrying capacity of fare paying passengers.    Detrimentally its position, in cases of short and sudden stops; standees would bang into it and / or even fall over it. More over, in a situation where passengers needed to get off the bus via the front doors, in case of emergency or when the rear exit doors were blocked by a crowd, the turnstile hindered this exit route.    So, fareboxes remained king of revenue collections on the surface transit vehicles.

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Perey World's Fair Model - Double Fare - 1939 - 1940 fare media: nickel upon exit 1939 - 1940 dime upon entrance 1939 - 1940

Manufactured by Perey, (model number not known at this time). This type of turnstile; was used for double fare applications, specifically at the 1939-1940 World's Fair at Corona - Flushing Meadows Park.    Double fares were collected at the World's Fair Station of 1939 - 1940 for passengers arriving to visit the location. An extra 5 cents was payable upon exit from the station, making the total fare paid 10 cents.    Departing the World's Fair Station charged 10 cents upon entrance. So in essence, this turnstile was dual fare, dual denomination.    This extra fare was collected to help offset the cost of the temporary subway line extension to the Fair Grounds, which was built at a cost of approximately two million dollars. At the conclusion of the World's Fair, only $500,000 in fares had been collected to offset the cost leaving the Board of Transportation to absorb the remaining balance.    A similar "exit payment" style of turnstile was used from 1956 through 1975 on the IND Rockaway Line south of Howard Beach, and of which also collected a double fare in the means of an extra token upon exit; and for the time span listed.    It is not known at this time if this 1939 Worlds Fare Model Turnstile were repurposed for the Rockaway Double Fare Stations, or a different machine entirely was placed into use.

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Perey Kompak Model 37 - 1939 fare media: nickel 1921 - 1948 dime 1948 - 1953 token 1953 - 2003

A notable feature of the Model 37, is this design was the first to featured a conical turnstile arm arrangement, with the hub mounted at a 45 degree angle to the ground. This allowed for a significantly smaller footprint for the machine on the platform floor.    As a big bulky wooden arm no longer jutted out to the right of the machine and taking up space between turnstiles, another turnstile lane could be placed immediately to the right of this one.    This saving of space allowed more turnstiles to be placed "en block" (several grouped together) and in a row, and hence increasing fare payment capacity for that location.    This was especially beneficial in large stations, such as those at junction points or at terminals, that saw large amounts fare payment traffic.    Simple, utilitarian, compact, easy to clean, easy to maintain. It became the workhorse of the transit system.

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Perey Kompak Round-End Model 97 - 1946 fare media: nickel 1921 - 1948 dime 1948 - 1953 token 1953 - 2003

Designed by John Vassos, a renowned industrial designer; of whom was hired to design this new streamlined turnstile by Perey Manufacturing. Streamlining was en vogue, and Vassos applied the look to many items, including Nedick's food outlets, RCA household radios; and the first television and entertainment centers (TV - radio - turntable in cabinets).    Mr. Vassos worked with other notable industrial designers of the time, including but not limited to: Henry Dreyfuss, Raymond Loewy and Norman Bel Geddes; but Mr. Vassos' name is not as well recognized as the others, as he refrained of opening his own firm.    This design featured the conical turnstile arm arrangement as well, which allowing for smaller foot print space. This conical arm arrangement has become the standard configuration for future turnstile models.    Another interesting fact about this model; it was designed for either one way operation (enter only) or two way operation enter and exit).    This is because this would be the first model to be ordered by the Board of Transportation, after the first unification of 1940. As the IRT favored two way use (enter and exit) of turnstiles; yet the BMT and the IND favored one way turnstile use; with exit via swinging gate at the token booth or HXT (High Exit) gates at unmanned locations: 1970 "Rapid Transit Fare Structure and Collection Methods" published by the Institute for Rapid Transit (U.S.)        Eventually is was decided to purchase all the Model 97's two way (enter and exit) and as far as is known, all 97's and later models were two way operation.

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Perey Model 107 - 1950's fare media: dime 1948 - 1953 token (regular fare) 1953 - 2003 half dollar for Aqueduct Racetrack Special Service 1955 - 1966 extra large Y cut out token for Aqueduct Racetrack Special service 1966 - 1979

The next model in the evolution of conical arm turnstile.    Design accents bear resemblance to the tail-fins and vertical taillights of 1950's automobiles.    Its open bottom design under the turnstile arms facilitated better sweeping and mopping of the revenue area.    Black. Chrome. Simple. Elegant.    According to New York Times newspaper articles, it is believed this model turnstile was retrofitted with a half dollar acceptance mechanisms for Aqueduct Racetrack Special service in 1959.    In 1966 the half dollar was eliminated and the "Extra Large Y cut out token" was issued upon the increase in fare to 75 cents for the same service.

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   As mentioned in the Rapid Transit Engineering Date Book, published by Institute for Rapid Transit, 1969; the following models of both low and high turnstiles were in service throughout the New York City Transit Authority in 1969. (Note the erroneous spelling of turnstiles.)

Low Turnstyles	Perey Kompak (1 and 2 way) General Electric 4 arm, 2 way, electric American 4 arm, one way, mechanical Perey coin passer, 4 arm, mechanical
High Turnstyles	Perey - plunger type Perey - automatic American - automatic
Present Purchases; Low Turnstyles	Perey Kompak
Present Purchases; High Turnstyles	Perey #45 full stride plunger type Perey Rotogates will eventually replace all High Exit turnstiles

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   According the New York Times article, these coin only turnstiles were modified from an existing model (but which?)  Furthermore, these turnstile accepted coin only: two quarters (50¢).

   Nineteen of these modified turnstiles were installed at ten locations to include: Times Square and Grand Central Stations in Manhattan; as well as Main Street-Flushing, Continental Avenue, and 179th Street stations in Queens. Twenty-one additional turnstiles were schedule to be installed (for a total of 30.)

   The article states further conversions were due, however this is the only article I can locate regarding this turnstile modification.

   Images (if they even exist) of this turnstile are needed, as well as information as to what model turnstile was modified.

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Duncan Industries Model TC "Token - Coin" - 1980 fare media: two quarters or token 1980

This model is not to be confused with the earlier (1978) attempted conversion of unknown model of turnstile.    This model of turnstile was an attempt to collect both tokens and coins within a single turnstile. While the kinks had long since been worked out for a multiple coin mechanism in a turnstile; many New Yorkers had been so conditioned to the single token, they were placing the token or quarters in the first slot they saw, and this gave them a 33 percent chance of choosing the correct slot: 33% chance of coin in token slot - 33% chance of token in coin slot - 33% chance correct object in correct slot!    As such, the design was not successful. But this model saw the incorporation of smooth stainless case panels for ease of cleaning and did not require painting.    In any event, the acceptance of tokens and coins made this turnstile a dual fare media.    But kudos to the NYCTA Revenue Department for the attempt!

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Tomsed Turnstile Company Model 110 - 1983 fare media: token 1983 - 2003

Not a great deal is known about this model, or its reason for installation.    It could simply be a case of Tomsed being the lowest bidder for the contract.    Tomsed is known to also manufactured the new stainless steel one way High Exit Gates. Perhaps a deal was reached where the NYCTA would take 5000 High Exit Gates, and 500 turnstiles on an approval basis, but this is unconfirmed.    Brushed stainless steal case with minimal seams and smooth joints make for easier sanitizing, especially when the "token suckers" were at their height. Did not require painting and was better for keeping internal mechanisms free of dust and dirt.    Tomsed was purchased by Boon Edam in 2005, a Dutch company that also specializes in gates, turnstiles and other revenue controlled access items.    Research will be forthcoming.

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AFC Turnstile (Cubic) Automatic Revenue Collection Group - 1992 fare media: token 1992 - 2003 MetroCard 2003 - present

This turnstile was released into public use initially as a token only machine in 1992.    However, its original design was fully intended to be, and was upgraded to include; an electronic fare payment method such as the MetroCard, when said system rolled out at a later date, which was 1997.    In taking tokens and MetroCard, made this turnstile dual fare media.    These turnstiles were also designed to deter fare-evaders by turnstile jumping. The sloped top caps on left and right prevent a flat and level placement of hands, and the inverted U tubes and uprights towards the exit, limit the headroom and arm placement when hopping over. As always, the determined fare evader still found ways to circumvent paying their fare, but the instances were reduced.    These are the last turnstiles to have been built with token acceptance in mind. Again, stainless was the material for the case.    With the abolishment of token use in 2003; the token slots were capped and this machine became MetroCard Only.    The machines are expected to have the internal MetroCard computer readers exchanged for OMNY computers and RFID pads mounted on top by 2024.    These would be the last turnstile model to accept tokens and therefore is the final model applicable to the coverage of this website.

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Perey Model #45 (full stride)"Coin Passor" High Entrance Exit Turnstile "HEET":  ca. 1945 - the "Iron Maiden" Perey Manufacturing fare media: nickel 1945 - 1948 dime 1948 - 1953 token 1953 -  media: nickel, dime or token
	at left: Perey Manufacturing model 45 full stride "Coin Passor" - ca. 1945   (not shown) American Turnstile 1931 - ca.1945    These turnstiles were coin - mechanical operated from 1945 to 1953 and then operated by tokens (only) after that date.    A farepayer deposited a coin or token into the slot on top, and then pressed a plunger inwards from the front, which released a mechanism which allowed the passenger to rotate the turnstile while entering. After 120 degrees of rotation, the turnstile locked, until the next coin / token deposit and plunger activation.     These are used at low traffic egresses of stations, where token booths may have been part time, or a passageway where a change or token booth may have been impractical due to space restrictions.    In another consideration for their use, was when budgetary shortfalls became common place within the transit system in the late 1960's through the 1980's; these High Entrance Exit Turnstiles could be installed, replacing a part time or full time change / token clerk position.  right: unknown manufacturer ca. 1993 fare media: MetroCard 1993 - 2003 MetroCard 2003 - present
	This style seen above right, has replaced the older mild steel straight armed "iron maidens" with curved (for better ergonomics) 304 stainless steel tubular models beginning around 1993.    These are cleaner and of a more open design for those that may have claustrophobia. The newer types are colloquially known as a "Garlic Press."    The open perforated screen design also prevented the hiding of a potential mugger or other criminal in the blind spots behind the sheet metal panel of the older style.    These were able to take tokens, then token and MetroCard; and upon retirement of the token in 2003, MetroCard only.    These will be adapted to take the new OMNY touchless payment card.
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Perey Rotogate? One Way High Exit Gate "HXT" media: none
This is called a High EXit Turnstile; but technically speaking, it is not a turnstile.    It is a one way gate, as there was no method of payment to enter through the device from either direction.    The design incorporates a one way ratcheting mechanism to prevent unpaid entry, but freewheels in the exit direction.    Inclusion here is because their use often coincided and were mounted next to or in close proximity to the High Entrance Exit Turnstile model above.    As a kid, they could be fun to lock your little brother or sister in, by holding the bars from moving further once they were in the wedge shaped area where they could neither get in or get out; until a quick smack from your mother made you let them out. ☺    They remain significant hazards in cases of rapid evacuation, such as smoke conditions, fire, rapid flooding, derailments, acts of crime or terror attacks. But, as they are strictly mechanical, they work in loss of power conditions.

   Prior to the rise in fare from 5 cent to 10 cents on July 1, 1948; Board of Transportation turnstile mechanics installed new 10 cent mechanisms in half the turnstiles throughout the system, however these were taped over. This left 50 percent of the turnstiles still accepting nickels.

   At 12:01 am on July 1; the tape was removed from the dime turnstiles and placed over the nickel turnstiles, until those turnstiles could be converted to dime operation.

Model D - Manual	But with the advent of the internal combustion bus, bus stops were relocated to the curbside out of traffic lanes and now drivers had to steer the bus in and out of the stops as well as swerve in and out of traffic.    When considering a bus driver had to collect fares, make change, issue transfers, collect transfers (and make sure they were valid on both date, time as from an appropriate connecting route), keep tallies of same; on the rare occasion assist a passenger in boarding or alighting from the bus, let alone actually driving the bus (especially in congested traffic), making change was a distraction that could be eliminated. Especially when a passenger realized last minute they needed change or a transfer for a connecting line and the bus was already moving towards the stop!  Driving and making change did not make for a good combination, but they did it.    Early fare boxes had a crank on the side that the driver had to rotate (like a coffee grinder) to sort and count the change which then dropped into the coin box below.    In New York City, these were the Johnson Farebox, Manual D Model and can be seen at left (please note: this is the only the upper sorting and counting portion only; the coin box / pedestal is not seen in the photo.)    Note that the Model D did not accept quarter dollars - only pennies, nickels, dimes and one size of token.	Model K25 (early version)
	The next farebox to be installed on NYCTA buses were Johnson Model K25 seen at right. These were simplified for operation with the lever instead of a crank to drop the coins.    It also had a coin drawer for rejects or if the operator needed change to refill his manual coin changer. This model accepted: pennies; nickels, dimes, quarter dollars; as well as two sizes of tokens.    This model too sat upon a floor mounted pedestal that was enclosed on three sides and acted as a storage cubby for the driver.

   
   Keep in mind the NYCTA did accept pennies until at least 1955, as they were being used by bus drivers and trolley operators to make change for 2 cent, 6 cent and 7 cent continuing ride tickets, and the 13 cent bus fares.   

   Around 1966, a new problem surfaced - the armed robbery of bus drivers. Robbers were brandishing a knife or a firearm, and relieving the driver of his change maker and the change within the farebox. Remember, at this time, the driver had access to the change to replenish his change maker or to empty the farebox at the end of the route. When aggregated at the end of a shift, meant the fareboxes could hold a few hundred dollars.

   Until this point, the problem was isolated to perhaps two or three drivers getting robbed a year. We shall discuss the details of Bus Change Maker & Farebox Robberies in greater detail in the Fare Crimes chapter below.

		Also by this point in time, the Johnson Farebox Company had been bought out by Keene.    Keene kept the Johnson model numbers but substituted their name. Seen at left and right is the Keene Model K25 / K50.    The Keene Model K50 is almost identical in outward appearance to the K25, with the added internal feature to accept half dollar coins. We definitely know the K25 were installed in NYCTA buses, but the K50 is unconfirmed.    While the first version of the K25 had a open three sided pedestal (as seen in the above chapter at right), the second version of the K25 / K50 had totally enclosed pedestals and was now equipped with a double key locked coin vault drawer.    The image at far left is the front of the newer K25 / K50 unit (facing the operator / driver). Note that the reject drawer has been eliminated, and a chrome slot for holding daily trip reports mounted on the pedestal.    The image to the immediate left, is the back of the unit (facing the passengers) with the vault drawer in the open position, to show its placement and mounting.    The vault drawer required two keys: one to unlock it and allow removal from pedestal, the other key to actually open the drawer lid.    The first key, allowed personnel at the bus depot, aptly called a "vault puller"; to remove the drawer from the bus and bring to the count room, but not allow him to access the coins to prevent theft.    A second key was kept in the count room, and it was this key that actually opened the drawer and allowed it to be emptied of coinage for sorting and counting.    A further evolution of the Model K25/K50 was the K25M3; and were those units manufactured after 1979, which were now equipped to also accept the Susan B. Anthony dollar coins and of which we know the Transit Authority also accepted.    This lockable vault drawer could hold more than the old built in coin reservoir and the drivers change maker.
K25 / K50 (second version) (operators side showing coin counters)	K25 / K50 (second version) (passenger side - showing vault drawer)

On August 31, 1969, bus drivers were relieved of the responsibility of making change, and buses went to exact fare only.       But the criminal element adapted and now brought crowbars with them.    So this led to another, even more secure; design of pedestal. The answer lay in doing away with the removable vault drawers altogether. The Sealed Farebox    They were removed from the pedestals; and coins now dropped into a sealed coin vault mounted directly to the floor of the bus; and within the pedestal.    This sealed coin vault was equipped with a bayonet type hose coupler on the side.

The lug on the bayonet opened a latched door (215) allowing the coins to flow into the perforated "catch basin" (205).    While the patent drawing at left shows both coins (70) and paper money (60); NYCTA buses did not accept paper currency, and the coin bin (210) took up the space alloted for paper currency (200).    A vacuum powered coin collector and processor (22) was installed at bus depots throughout the city around 1971-1972. An advertisement for this system seen at above right.    The patent filing date is September 29, 1971, with the patent being granted on October 22, 1974. The assignee for the patent is the Keene Corp.    Upon pulling into the depot at the end of a run, a revenue collecting agent hooked up the end of the hose to the port on the farebox, and activated the vacuum.    As the air rushed into the perforations to fill the vacuum, it provided pneumatic force to the coins flowing down and the vacuum drew the coins into the hose and into the collector unit for sorting and counting.

    The vacuum unit was large, and it was quite powerful - it could evacuate the contents of the sealed fare box vault in 20 seconds or less. As the unit required electricity to operate the vacuum as well as contained electronics for sorting and accounting, it was not portable. This elaborate, stationary and very secure system made it difficult, practically impossible for robbery of the fareboxes, not to mention the bus depots had many personnel milling about instead of a single vulnerable person. This, finally solved the problem of farebox robberies.

   Returning to farebox models; several subsequent models of fareboxes came to be installed on NYCTA buses, that accepted the MetroCard, dollar bills, as well as printing out MetroCard bus transfers, and now the OMNY contactless card.

   Also, it should be noted that many of the private bus lines operating under franchises in the City of New York, such as: Fifth Avenue Coach, Surface Transit, Triboro Coach and Green Bus Lines to name but a few; had different fare boxes entirely - many were known to use the Grant Electrofarer, seen here:

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   Several factors led to the creation and issuance of dated / time stamped disposable paper transfer. The first was the cost of the metallic token. Initial set up costs were more expensive than paper counterparts.

   Second, with the growing amount of abuse by passengers who would hold onto a transfer token for use on a later date and getting two rides for the price of one; and with the growth of franchise routes within New York expanding where some companies would honor a transfer and others would not, and with various companies beginning to merge into larger companies; a much more elaborate transfer was required. One where a list of locations of applicable transfer points were location, and where a date and a time could be listed. Tokens did not have the room for this data. But, a paper slip did. When printed on pulp paper, the most economical of manufactured paper types, they were priced just right for mass production and short term use and disposability.

   There were dozens of printers specializing in transfer printing, and many patents issued for their specific design: Pope, Stedman, Smith, Moran are just a few of those found on New York transfers. Printers were a proud lot and many tickets and transfers include the name of the printer. But even more importantly, a list of locations or intersecting line where the transfer was accepted at was most prominent followed by some method of time punch

   Some companies such as the New York & Brooklyn Bridge Railroad and the Interborough Rapid Transit Co. used different printers over time, but kept a very similar design. Some started with a nice intaglio engraved printed ticket and ended 25 years later with a muddy lithographic issue. If one is interested to collect by printer variety, this can be rewarding yet challenging. Some of these are highlighted in the ticket page.

   As the 20th Century marched on, the number of ticket and transfer printers slowly whittled down; either through attrition; merger or business closure. When companies change, the references for collections and archives often are destroyed, thus creating difficulties when trying to document what was actually made and when.

   Coinciding with the First Unification in 1940, Globe Ticket Co. became the predominant ticket printer for the New York City Transit System. As a "union shop", that designation was a criteria in the awarding of contracts from the Board of Transportation and subsequently the New York City Transit Authority. But visual evidence also shows Elliott Ticket Company, National Ticket and Southern Coupon as receiving ticket or transfer contracts.

   New York City Transit Authority had their own "in house" printing shop for service notice signs and small run items and it seems that some tickets were produced there as well.

   With the issuance of dated one time use paper tickets or transfers. Further development of the time transfer narrowed usage to AM and PM or even specifically to the hour.

Zone Checks - The Oddball of the Fare Collection Methods

also known as the "Pay Enter - Pay Leave" fare method

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   As we now see, there is a place in fare control for tokens, tickets, transfers, zone checks, as well as coins and currency. Every revenue source needed to be documented to provide proper service and accounting, whether it be general admission or a special admittance.

   Tokens were extremely well suited for a general, heavy, repetitive use. Future issues, as well as older issues; could be stored for future use; as well as repurposed. And, when necessary, at the end of their service life, they could be sold for scrap for the base metal content. 

   Tokens for a limited application such as in exchange for transfers could be produced in much more limited numbers than say tokens to be used as a general widespread method of fare payment. When used in general fare applications, they were without any doubt; a significant initial investment and for the long term, and especially so in the scope of New York City where many millions of tokens were needed - later token orders were in quantities of 50 to 60 million tokens! Why so many?

   Granted, you had your single or two token users such as tourists and business visitors that were only in town for only a day or two; as well as residents that did not travel frequently via mass transit, such as the elderly, the physically handicapped, or even an able bodied user that mostly commuted by automobile, and all of a sudden finds their vehicle in the shop

   But you also had to consider the regular commuter who would buy packs of tokens in multiples of 10, for coming work weeks. Four million people use the New York City subway on an average workday.  If only fifty percent of those regular commuter passengers purchased a single 10 pack, that was 20 million tokens not in circulation at any given moment. And a lot more than the fifty percent of regular commuters bought ten packs for convenience every week or two packs every two weeks.

   This figure does not include those tokens actually in circulation at that precise moment: those in the turnstiles, waiting to be sold at the token booths, (or where applicable) in stock at banks or major retailers for convenience sale; nor doe the amount account for those held in reserve by the NYCTA. Tokens held in reserve gradually replaced those accidentally or intentionally brought home by tourists as souvenirs; but also for the more prosaic reasons: being lost, eventually worn out (it might take a while, but tokens did reach a point of being so worn they became problematic) or damaged. Furthermore, tokens in reserve were used as a buffer in those times when a raise in fare was announced and passengers were hoarding tokens in the hope to save a few dollars.

   Tickets and transfers on the other hand, were very well suited for those applications only requiring a one time use, whether it be for a general continued trip such as a bus transfer or for specific controlled access like a block ticket.

   Paper tickets and transfers were cheap to mass produce, customizable for use or location, carry a significant amount information pertaining to their use and redemption. Quality was not paramount, only legibility. Ink coverage could be inconsistent; they were printed on the most economical of pulp papers (a few exceptions outstanding), and not always cut squarely. Basic issues could be printed ahead of time (lacking the date, serial number or route number) and stored for short periods; however they were susceptible to absorbing moisture and could take on a musty odor.

   This detriment aside, they would be dated as needed by method in the printing industry called "crashing". Multiple daters on a press would imprint the date onto the pre-printed transfer. While serial numbering would advance sequentially, the date stayed as set and both were usually printed at the same time in red ink.

   Depending on the day of the week, as little as five hundred to ten thousand transfers could be printed per route, per day (with weekends and holidays generally having a lower printing run than workdays) and depending on the passenger traffic: trunk route received more traffic than say a several block shuttle line to a cemetery.

   Once used, they were expected to be disposed of. Chopped upon presentation to the gateman, or in later eras; simply dumped in a landfill. Many a bus driver reused his brown paper lunch bag as a trash bag for transfers. When they got off the bus at the end of their shift - the bag wound up in the curbside trash receptacle. Only in recent years, were the transfers accumulated and disposed of in a recycling bin at the depot.

   All things being equal, both these fiscal issues and others; were necessary to providing transportation services on a large scale. The accurate collection and accounting of fare payment is as important to management as providing the transportation service itself.
   

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   In the late 1800's, the numerous franchise operators were independent of each other and very often in great competition to one another. Different companies operated surface lines right under the elevated railroads. On busy streets many franchises shared trackage rights and shared the same rails.

   Through the greatness of the American system of capitalism; many companies vied for a piece of the pie. When first opened, a company may only consist of one route. Over time, that company acquired another or was itself was acquired by another.

   Some companies kept the acquired operation as a subsidiary which kept its name, or merged it with another route and changing name, or outright dissolving it and adding the route to its own. By the turn of the 19th Century, the corporate flow chart of transit companies in New York was, to say the least; befuddling. Completely separate companies would have similar names. Over half of the operations in Brooklyn had the place names "Brooklyn", "South Brooklyn" and "Coney Island" in their company title.

   And when time came for a reorganization; you could find yourself with a South Brooklyn Railway and South Brooklyn Street Railroad; both of which belonged to two separate entities until the First Unification in 1940 (actually before that with the formation of Brooklyn Rapid Transit, but let us not make matters even more confusing).